DIETARY SALT INTAKE: HISTORY, ASSESSMENT, AND BENEFIT IN HYPERTENSIVE TREATMENT

Authors

  • Sunitha Esther Raj Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
  • Lee Mei Tan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
  • Adyani Md Redzuan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2016.v9s2.13483

Abstract

ABSTRACT
Multiple lines of investigation including genetic, epidemiological, and interventional studies have demonstrated consistently a positive relationship
between salt intake, blood pressure (BP) increment, and cardiovascular consequences. In addition, it has been documented that excessive salt intake
can be attributed to various health complications such as asthma, osteoporosis, obesity, and gastric cancer. On the contrary, a reduction in salt intake
has been shown to reduce BP and improve health outcomes, although the evidence is not completely unequivocal. Despite this discrepancy, a lowsodium
diet
is widely
being recommended
to
all hypertensive
patients in
particular,
as evidence
against
its efficacy in
conjunction with optimum
hypertensive
treatment
is
well
established.
Determination
of
salt
intake
among hypertensive
patients is important
since dietary
salt
restriction
had

been
proven
to
improve
BP control
in conjunction with optimum pharmacological management.
Various
methods
have
been used to
estimate
sodium
intake
includes 24-hrs
urinary
sodium,
overnight
urinary sodium,
spot
urinary sodium/creatinine
ratio,
and dietary survey
methods. Reducing

population
salt
intake
has been proven
to
be beneficial, preventing
millions
of
deaths from
cardiovascular
disease
and
stroke,
and reducing
the burden

on
health
services.
Many
individual
countries around
the globe
have
already
taken
action against
reducing
population
salt
intake.
These strategies

were
either led by
government,
nongovernment
organizations,
or industry.
Keywords: Dietary sodium, Salt, Hypertension, Sodium measurement, Cost-effectiveness.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

REFERENCES

He FJ, Macgregor GA. Salt, blood pressure and cardiovascular disease.

Curr Opin Cardiol 2007;22(4):298-305.

Institute of Medicine. Sodium Intake in Populations: Assessment of

Evidence. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2013.

Farquhar WB, Edwards DG, Jurkovitz CT, Weintraub WS. Dietary

sodium and healthmore than just blood pressure. J Am Coll Cardiol

;65(10):1042-50.

National Heart Foundation of Australia. Salt and Hypertension,

(Professional Paper); 2007. p. 555.

Go AS, Mozaffarian D, Roger VL, Benjamin EJ, Berry JD, Borden WB,

et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2013 update: A report from the

American Heart Association. Circulation 2013;127(1):e6-245.

Brown IJ, Tzoulaki I, Candeias V, Elliott P. Salt intakes around the world:

Implications for public health. Int J Epidemiol 2009;38(3):791-813.

Meneton P, Jeunemaitre X, de Wardener HE, MacGregor GA. Links

between dietary salt intake, renal salt handling, blood pressure and

cardiovascular disease. Am Physiol Soc 2005;85(2):679-715.

Luft FC, Grim CE, Fineberg N, Weinberger MC. Effects of volume

expansion and contraction in normotensive whites, blacks, and subjects

of different ages. Circulation 1979;59(4):643-50.

Amiri M, Kelishadi R. Can salt hypothesis explain the trends of

mortality from stroke and stomach cancer in Western Europe? Int J Prev

Med 2012;3(6):377-8.

Cirillo M, Del Giudice L, Bilancio G, Franzese MD, De Santo NG.

Low salt diet and treatment of hypertension: An old story. J Nephrol

;22 Suppl 14:136-8.

Corcoran AC, Taylor RD, Page IH. Controlled observations on the

effect of low sodium dietotherapy in essential hypertension. Circulation

;3(1):1-16.

Elliot P. Role of salt intake in the development of high blood pressure.

Int J Epidemiol 2005;34:975-8.

Intersalt: An international study of electrolyte excertion and

blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium

Asian J Pharm Clin Res, Vol 9, Suppl. 2, 2016, 39-42

Raj et al.

excretion. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Br Med J

;297(6644):319-28.

Haddy FJ, Vanhoutte PM, Feletou M. Role of potassium in regulating

blood flow and blood pressure. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp

Physiol 2006;290(3):R546-52.

Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Kesteloot H, et al.

Intersalt revisited: Further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and

blood pressure within and across populations. Intersalt Cooperative

Research Group. BMJ 1996;312(7041):1249-53.

Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E, Buring JE, Rexrode KM,

Kumanyika SK, et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on

cardiovascular disease outcomes: Observational follow-up of the trials

of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ 2007;334(7599):885-8.

Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D,

et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the

Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium

Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001;344(1):3-10.

Aburto NJ, Ziolkovska A, Hooper L, Elliott P, Cappuccio FP,

Meerpohl JJ. Effect of lower sodium intake on health: Systematic

review and meta-analyses. BMJ 2013;346:f1326.

He FJ, MacGregor GA. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood

pressure: A meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public

health. J Hum Hypertens 2002;16(11):761-70.

Batcagan-Abueg AP, Lee JJ, Chan P, Rebello SA, Amarra MS. Salt

intakes and salt reduction initiatives in Southeast Asia: A review. Asia

Pac J Clin Nutr 2013;22(4):490-504.

Brown IJ, Dyer AR, Chan Q, Cogswell ME, Ueshima H, Stamler J,

et al. Estimating 24-hour urinary sodium excretion from casual urinary

sodium concentrations in Western populations: The INTERSALT

study. Am J Epidemiol 2013;177:1180-92.

Charlton KE, Steyn K, Levitt NS, Jonathan D, Zulu JV, Nel JH.

Development and validation of a short questionnaire to assess sodium

intake. Public Health Nutr 2008;11(1):83-94.

Kawamura M, Ohmoto A, Hashimoto T, Yagami F, Owada M,

Sugawara T. Second morning urine method is superior to the casual urine

method for estimating daily salt intake in patients with hypertension.

Hypertens Res 2012;35:611-6.

Tanaka T, Okamura T, Miura K, Kadowaki T, Ueshima H, Nakagawa H,

et al. A simple method to estimate populational 24-h urinary sodium and

potassium excretion using a casual urine specimen. J Hum Hypertens

;16:97-103.

Willett W. Commentary: Dietary diaries versus food frequency

questionnaires-a case of undigestible data. Int J Epidemiol

;30(2):317-9.

Gaziano TA, Bitton A, Anand S, Weinstein MC; International Society

of Hypertension. The global cost of nonoptimal blood pressure.

J Hypertens 2009;27(7):1472-7.

Penz ED, Joffres MR, Campbell NR. Reducing dietary sodium

and decreases in cardiovascular disease in Canada. Can J Cardiol

;24(6):497-501.

Smith-Spangler CM, Juusola JL, Enns EA, Owens DK, Garber AM.

Population strategies to decrease sodium intake and the burden of

cardiovascular disease: A cost-effectiveness analysis. Ann Intern Med

;152(8):481-7, W170-483.

Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, Moran A,

Lightwood JM, Pletcher MJ, et al. Projected effect of dietary

salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med

;362(7):590-9.

Published

01-10-2016

How to Cite

Raj, S. E., L. M. Tan, and A. Md Redzuan. “DIETARY SALT INTAKE: HISTORY, ASSESSMENT, AND BENEFIT IN HYPERTENSIVE TREATMENT”. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, vol. 9, no. 8, Oct. 2016, pp. 39-42, doi:10.22159/ajpcr.2016.v9s2.13483.

Issue

Section

Review Article(s)